Blood bank management system Essay

1. Introductions BLOOD BANK MANAGEMENT is a software application to maintain day to day transactions in a blood bank. This software help to register all the donors, Blood collection details, blood issued details etc. Blood banks collect, store, and provide blood. Typically, these banks collect blood from voluntary blood donors. The banks then sort blood by type, check blood to  make sure it is free of disease and then store it for future use. The main mission of a blood bank is to provide life-saving blood to hospitals and other health care facilities. Blood cannot be created by any means, it can only be collected from the Humans i.e. donors. A blood bank is a bank of blood or blood components, gathered as a result of blood donation, stored and preserved for later use in blood transfusion..to satisfy blood necessity, to buy, sale and stock. 1.1 Purpose Online Blood Bank is aims serving for human welfare. We have all the information, you will ever need. Many people are here for you, to help you, willing to donate blood for you anytime. We have done the entire job, rest is yours. Search the blood group you need. You can help us by registering on Online Blood Bank if you are willing to donate your blood when needed. As a proud member of Blood Bank and a responsible human being, you can help someone in need. So donate blood in online. 1.2 Scope Blood Bank is aims serving for human welfare. We have all the information, you will ever need. Many people are here for you, to help you, willing to donate blood for you anytime. We have done the entire job, rest is yours. Search the blood group you need. You can help us by registering on Online Blood Bank if you are willing to donate your blood when needed. As a proud member of Online Blood Bank and a responsible human being, you can help someone in need. So donate blood in bank. In this project mainly 3 modules are there. 1. Admin 2. Donor 3. Acceptors 1. Admin: This module focuses on the both donors & acceptors. Each member in a donor & acceptor is given a user id and password, which identifies him  uniquely. The member is given a login form. he enters the login details user id and password. .. The options given to †¢ Maintain donor details †¢ Maintain referral once †¢ Update donor details †¢ View Experiences †¢ Logout Change Password Whenever a user wants to change his / her password he can select the change password option. The system displays the form, which asks him for his old password and new password. The system then compares the old password with the existing password in the database†¦ 2. Donor: Each member in a Donor is given a user id and password, which identifies him uniquely. The member is given a login form. he enters the login details user id and password. .. The options given to a each member in a staff are Change password Find a Blood group Why donate blood who needs blood Find a Donor Refer a friend Logout 3. Acceptor: In this you can store the information about Acceptors. Change password Find a blood group. Who needs blood Logout? Software requirements: Operating System: Windows XP Front End: NET (Active Server Pages, Visual basic ,Java Script) Back end : Sql Server Hardware requirements : MINIMUM P-IV SYSTEM 512 RAM 40 GB HDD 1.3Definitions Donor The person who donate the blood Accepter The person who accepts the blood Transfusion An act of transfusing donated blood, blood products, or other fluid into the circulatory system of a person or animal. 1.4References http://www.bharatbloodbank.com http://www.lionsbloodbank.net/ 1.5 Overview The first section tells about introduction of blood bank management system and its scope. The remaining sections of this document provide a general description, including characteristics of the users of this project, the product’s hardware, and the functional and data requirements of the product. General description of the project is discussed in section 2 of this document. Section 3 gives the functional requirements, data requirements and constraints and assumptions made while designing the E-Store. It also gives the user viewpoint of product. Section 3 also gives the specific requirements of the product. Section 3 also discusses the external interface requirements and gives detailed description of functional requirements. Section 4 is for supporting information. Now the description of SRS is follow:- Section 1. 1.Introduction 1.1 Purpose 1.2 Scope 1.3 Definitions 1.4 References 1.5 Overview Section 2. 2.Overall Description 2.1 Product Perspective 2.2 Product Functions 2.3 User Characteristics 2.4 Constraints Section 3. 3. Specific Requirements 3.1 External Interfaces 3.2 Functions 3.3 Performance Requirements 3.4 Logical Database Requirements 3.5 Design Constraints 3.6 Assumptions and Dependencies

Internal Memorandum Essays

Internal Memorandum Essays Internal Memorandum Essay Internal Memorandum Essay Internal Memorandum Name: Course: Date: Internal Memorandum To: From: Re: Issue Mr. Blake was watching the super bowl game on at the residence of Jessie Smith and his wife on 2-7-2011. Mr. Blake and two other guests were on the couch watching TV and packing a white powdered substance into small bags. Police officers who responded to the Smith’s home for noise complaint stated that they observed Mr. Blake and his friends packing the white powder through the large living room window of Jessie Smith’s home. Since the Police officer saw this in plain view while responding to the complaint, Mr. Blake’s drug charge is admissible according to the Criminal Statutes provided by the Firm’s Law Librarian. The relevant criminal procedure is that if a police officer reasonably suspects that a person has committed, is committing or is about to commit a felony or a Penal Law misdemeanor, the officer is authorized to stop, question and frisk that person. The officer’s personal observation gave them a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity t aking place in the house. â€Å"Procedural criminal law sets forth the rules and laws to be followed from the investigative stage of a crime to the arrest, trial, and sentencing of the defendant. The fourth Amendment prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures† (Garland 2009, p.36). Rule The Possession of a Controlled Substance can be either a felony or misdemeanor under the DC code. Controlled substances may include drugs like heroin, marijuana, and firearms that are not registered. According to the misdemeanor DC Code Citation:  §48-904.01,  §48-904.08 criminal statutes provided by the firm’s law librarian states two elements for the misdemeanor level of offense, which are: 1) The defendant possessed a controlled substance. 2) The defendant did so knowingly and intentionally. This means he did it consciously, voluntarily, and on purpose, not mistakenly, accidentally, or inadvertently. From the observations of the responding officers, they witnessed both of these elements stated above. Part two of the Possession of a Controlled Substance under the felony offense: DC Code Citation:  §48-904.01and the charge elements are: 1) The defendant distributed a controlled substance. To distribute means to transfer or to attempt to transfer an item to another person’s possession. The government need not prove that the defendant received or expected to receive anything of value in return after the transfer has taken place. 2) The defendant distributed the controlled substance knowingly and intentionally. This means consciously, voluntarily, and on purpose, not mistakenly, accidentally, or inadvertently. 3) When the defendant distributed the controlled substance, he was at least 21 years of age as is required by law. 4) When he distributed the controlled substance, the person to whom the controlled substance was distributed to be under 18 years old and, therefore, was a juvenile. 5) The amount or quantity of the controlled substance distributed was 30 grams or more. Analysis The officers stated that they also observed Mr. Blake pass over a white powdery baggie to another person standing near the couch. Therefore, this makes the charge of Possession of a Controlled Substance admissible because they observed Mr. Blake pass over the white powder-filled bag to someone else in the room intentionally. He voluntarily not mistakenly distributed the controlled substance to another person. So according to the facts and Criminal Statutes provided by the Firm’s Law Librarian, the Possession of a Controlled Substance charge in this case is admissible and, therefore, considered a felony. The facts presented meet the requirements set out in the DC Code for the drug evidence. The possession of an unregistered firearm charge should NOT be admissible. This charge should not be accepted because the responding police officers did not witness the guns in the possession of Mr. Blake, the defendant. After entering the home, they observed the guns sandwiched in between t he cushions of the couch near the location Mr. Blake was seated, but he is not the owner of the home and was not in possession of the firearms at the time. This is the reason why the police officers do not have enough probable cause to pin the unregistered firearms on Mr. Blake. If nobody else in the home admits to owning the unregistered firearms, then the homeowner should be held liable for the charges of Unregistered Firearm. This is because the firearms were found in their home. According to the DC Criminal Statutes, this can be either a Felony or a Misdemeanor. Mr. Blake does not meet the requirements for any of the elements of this offense or the supplied case laws. This means that Mr. Blake cannot be accused of the possession of unregistered firearms (Werle et al, 2005). Conclusion From the collected evidence, it can be concluded that Mr. Blake is admissible for the drug possession charges but not the possession of firearm charges’. Blake is admissible for the drug charges because the police witnessed the criminal drug activity going on through the window of the home, while responding to that home for a noise complaint. Mr. Blake is not liable for the firearm charge because police do not have valid proof that the unregistered firearms found in the house belongs to Mr. Blake. The unregistered firearms could belong to any of the other occupants in the home during the super bowl game when the arrest took place. References Garland, N. M. (2009). Criminal law for the criminal justice professional. New York: McGraw-Hill. Werle, G. (2005). Principles of international criminal law. The Hague: TMC Asser Press.

Invention and Discovery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Invention and Discovery - Essay Example Invention is of our making while discovery is what we can learn of God's making. How can we tell I suggest there is this first and most simple difference. A discovery is something someone else can test for himself and find out if it is true or not. An invention is something that is true only because of the inventor. (...) Science is therefore a discipline of discovery while engineering is a discipline of invention. And if we compare the findings of science and what we can learn from engineering, we discover that science is always surprising while engineering is always explicable." (Brownpanda, 2006). Even though there is a thin line between discoveries and inventions, the factors stated by Brownpanda are very convincing since discoveries can be associated to science and inventions to engineering. In this case, the difference is quite clear. Brownpanda makes the following assertions in order to find the difference between discoveries and inventions: "I want to suggest something further. Discovery, if we touch upon truth, will always reveal the divine intelligence. And this divine intelligence has certain characteristics: its laws are always simple, its consequences are always amazing, its forms are always beautiful, and while it can be appreciated by all, it is always beyond our understanding. Invention, however wonderful, can always be picked apart and understood. It is often complicated. Take for example a car, it is essentially an internal combustion engine. But there are so many other bits to it and each of the bits is there to solve a specific and particular problem. Take an animal, in contrast. On the surface, it appears simple. You can easily draw anaologies between the animal or human body and the car. But what makes an animal or a human being is not the body but the fact that they are alive. And the reason why they are alive is because they came from another living thing." (Brownpanda, 2006). On the other hand, Fll explains the difference between inventions and discoveries as follows: "Discovery means that the laws of nature exist in a defined form, totally independent of humans or anybody else below the level of an almighty being, and that there is a possibility to discover them in total (if there is a finite number of natural laws) or at least in parts and to describe them in some language (including the language of mathematics). Maybe we find only parts, or we see the laws coarse-grained (i.e. in some approximations), but it is out there to be discovered." (Fll, n. d.) So there is a point of connection between Brownpanda and Fll when they associate discoveries to the divine intelligence or God's making. Klint finds that discoveries and inventions are differentiated through another point of view as stated below: "In the natural sciences there is a conceptual tool to make a distinction between discovery and invention: discoveries are embodied in nature while inventions are embodied in artefacts. Notions such as reality'' and observation'' are used to explain that the instruments--being artefacts--used during experiments lead to valid conclusions that are independent from the actual instruments being used." (Flint, 2006). Regarding the different ways of knowing, there are 4 distinct ways of getting knowledge: sense perception, language,

This will be an evidence based appraisal of an aspect of your practice Essay

This will be an evidence based appraisal of an aspect of your practice and include making recommendations for nursing practice a - Essay Example 1472). Fall-related injuries are seen in about 15% to 50% of patients – these injuries include fractures or lacerations. Moreover, falls often cause fears of falling and it subsequently causes activity restriction and prolonged hospital stay (Schwendiman, p. 1472). Different factors have been considered as possible contributory causes for falls, including, an aging population, rising patient acuity, nurse shortages, an inefficient staff, and similar factors (Hendrich). Measures to prevent falls have been implemented by various hospitals in their clinical setting; however, for the most part, these methods have not been able to significantly reduce the rates of falls. This paper shall explore different ways by which nurses can prevent inpatient falls. It shall answer the question: according to evidence-based practice, what are the efficient nursing interventions which can be applied to prevent inpatient falls. Methods: An extensive literature search was conducted for this paper. First, a manual library search of the school library was carried out – searching medical and nursing journals for published studies in relation to falls and the prevention of falls. This search covered the past five years: January 2006 to December 2010. Relevant studies were set aside for further evaluation. Next, an internet search was carried out through the following databases: Medline, PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, and other nursing journals. The Medline database was used because it presented a reliable database of medical and nursing related peer-reviewed researches from a variety of nursing and medical journals. The Cochrane database was chosen because it has the widest and most extensive database for peer-reviewed medical and nursing-related researches. This database yielded studies which were used for this assessment. Finally, Google scholar was also used because it is one of the fastest databases to search. It stores all academic journals and studies from a wide-range o f topics. Moreover, it has search properties which were chosen in order to specify the search process and ensure reliable search results. A Google scholar search was carried out in order to facilitate the search process. The following search words and combinations were entered into the search engines: falls prevention; inpatient falls prevention; elderly falls prevention, and similar combinations. Studies falling within the 5 year period were set aside for further evaluation. Each study were then critically analysed based on the following elements: reliability of authors, peer-review process, publication in a reliable peer-reviewed journal, validity of research methods, reliability of results, and validity of general research process. Results: Based on the search results, there were 10 studies which fulfilled the criteria for this research topic. Various studies presented methods for the prevention of falls. Some of these methods were evaluated depending on effectiveness and impact on clients. In a paper by Schwendiman, et.al., (p. 1472), the authors carried out a serial survey study in order to evaluate in-patient fall rates and injuries before and after the implementation of an interdisciplinary falls prevention program (IFP) in a 300-bed urban public hospital. In the process of research, the authors were able to establish that falls often lead to negative consequences like injuries,

Debate against humans being rational.. humans are irrational Coursework

Debate against humans being rational.. humans are irrational - Coursework Example Altruisms is necessarily being counted under the voluntary giving away of one’s financial resources or acting in a way which deliberately provides benefit to the other person at the cost of their own benefit. Hence in this way, humans act irrational defying the rules of the rationality. (Jensen, 2008). The expected utility model which is essential model which is based on the rational behaviors however it is not the case in all conditions. Through anchoring people are often overly influenced by outside suggestion. People can be influenced even when they know that the suggestion is not being made by someone who is better informed. (Kahneman & Tversky, 1999). Besides Expected Utility theory also do not seem to be in conformity with the rationality. The famous experiments conducted by Tversky and Kahneman suggested a revolutionary shift from the expected utility theory and clearly suggested than we humans are not essentially rational. These experiments were: Few of the surveys conducted by Stuart Sunderland widely suggest that the irrational behavior is far more widespread and is normal than the supposed. (Sutherland, 1994). According to Sunderland there are various natural phenomenon which suggest that the man can act in irrational way. There is also a growing debate among the cognitive psychologists which suggest that we act according to the principal that differ from those we ought to follow. (Stein, 1997) There is also a phenomenon called framing effect which basically outlines that we decide differently depending on how we frame the decision based on the losses and gains. (Wang & Fischbeck, 2004) This therefore necessarily does not mean that in all situations we act rationally. We don’t always seem to be behaving according to rationality. The deviation from the rationality seems to be due to Satisficing and heuristics effects. The

Administrator Challenges Essay Example for Free

Administrator Challenges Essay In modern society there are many challenges to police work. They can be very overwhelming but many grant satisfaction. It takes a special individual to be a police officer and perform the duties that are required by law for them to do. This paper will look at the satisfactions and challenges of police work on a day to day basis. One challenge that police officers face daily is the stress that accompanies the job. Many officers face very stressful and intense situations that need to be handled carefully. A police officer may face a crowd that is rioting and looting and is greatly outnumbered. He or she faces the risk of being overrun and this can be detrimental to their emotions. They may be in fear of their life because crowds feed off of each other and can become very aggressive and violent. In some instances the officer will face gunfire and this puts the officer in a life or death situation. See more: Foot Binding In China essay If the officer has to kill the subject then the officer may face Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and this can affect their performance of their daily duties and their personal lives. According to (Gersons, 1989) shooting incidents are a rare phenomenon in low violence police work; however, when a shooting incident occurs, the psychological impact for the officers involved may take the form of severe PTSD (Stewart,2011). There are programs that help individuals to cope with PTSD and can get help from The National Institute for Mental Health. Another challenge that our police officers face on a daily basis is the relations they have with the citizens of the community. Many members of society see the police officers as the enemy or are out to get them. This cannot be further from the truth. The officers need to know how to  communicate with the people in stressful situations. Most people do not realize that officers are called to show up at a residence and it may be the worst day of that individual’s life. Police officers communicate with people from a wide variety of backgrounds, attitudes, and preconceptions (2008). One skill an officer uses at one call may not work at another call. The officer must adapt and control the situation and use his or her training to get the facts and information from the bystanders or the victim(s). With all the challenges and stressors that come with policing there are also satisfactions that come with the job. Officers serve and protect the public. They patrol the streets to ensure the community is safe from would be offenders or to apprehend the ones that have already committed crimes. They take individuals of the streets that are a danger to society. They help people that may have a flat tire, domestic disputes, or have had their home broken in to. The officers feel satisfied when they capture the suspect and when they help people in need. When the officers are recognized for their good work they are satisfied with their job and may become more motivated to improve their performance on the job. Many strive to climb the ranks and with each promotion come more satisfaction. A career in law enforcement in itself is a satisfaction that many people do not get. Many officers do not do the job for the pay but rather the rewards that come with the job in serving and helping the community. Certain officers find it very rewarding when they can help a juvenile down the right path and to possibly mentor others from making life changing mistakes. Officers need to stay positive in their work and duties to ensure job satisfaction because it can affect the work they perform and also affect community relations as to how they see the police. Thus, poor performance can impact police-community relations by adversely affecting public attitudes toward the police (Buzawa, Austin, Bannon, 1994). In the routine of having a positive work attitude and environment it creates less stress levels and fewer symptoms of stress that can lead to absenteeism, burnout, and alcoholism. There are many reasons why people do not want to become part of the law enforcement community but there are a lot of reasons and rewards why other people feel they are being called to serve and protect. Officers face many  challenges every day from life threatening to resolving domestic disputes. They forever have a family in blue and will always share each other’s pain and satisfactions. Reference Buzawa, S. E. (1984). Determining patrol officer job satisfaction: The role of selected demographic and job-specific attitudes. Criminology, 22, 61-81. Gutahun, S., Sims, B., Hummer, D. (2008). Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment Among Probation and Parole Officers: A Case Study. PoliceOne, (). Police Communication: Why Does it Matter?. (June 2008). Retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/CommCurrentsArticle.aspx?id=886 Stewart, S. (2011, March). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Camp Robinson Police Department,

Downstream Linkages in the Zambian Copper Industry

Downstream Linkages in the Zambian Copper Industry Resource extraction is often regarded by governments and people of resource-rich countries as a solution to poverty alleviation, ranging from tax revenues, technology transfer, and employment creation, export enhancement to upstream and downstream linkages. Downstream linkage industries do promise the widening of employment opportunities and high foreign earnings as a result of value-addition. Western resource intensive economies such as Australia, Canada, US and the like are examples of well-managed, resource-rich economies in which the mineral sectors spurred knowledge-intensive processes, created jobs and foreign exchange earnings and resulted in spill-overs into new industrial and service sectors. The scope of downstream linkages is often considered an important determinant of the extent to which a mineral-rich nation stands to gain additional economic benefits that come with it. This explains the continuous pressure that is always mounted on mining companies by host governments to engage further in downstream activities. However, downstream activities irrespective of their location are influenced by global market dynamics and competitive elements. Therefore, in an attempt to grasp the benefits that come with downstream activities, it is extremely imperative to examine the opportunities, risks and possible ways of striking a balance taking cognizance of the global demand and supply interplay to ensure that the highest possible net positive benefits are achieved and sustained. In focus is Zambia which has been an active copper mining country since 1900s though performed poorly along the line but revamped barely in the last decade. In 1968, Zambia held an important position as a copper producer, with peak output at 815,000 ton and a 15% share of world output, but the abysmal performance of its state-owned enterprises that took over after the 1969 nationalisation resulted in a drop of output to a trough of 250,000 tonnes in 2000 (Radetzki, 2009p.182). Nevertheless, the copper industry has been revitalised with the privatization of the mining sector which occurred between mid-1990s and early 2000s. In the period 2000-2005, copper exports contributed to around half of total foreign exchange earnings, but from 2006 onwards, this share increased to 73.5% 83.2% ( Fessehaie, 2012 p.3). Copper also provided 10% of formal employment and its contribution to GDP in the last decade increased on a yearly basis, reaching 9.1% in 2009. Copper mining has and continues to be one of the largest economic activities in Zambia, comprising approximately 10 percent of GDP and more than 60 percent of exports (Wilson, 2012pp798-799). The paper therefore examined downstream or for ward linkages to copper production in Zambia by first exploring the scope of downstream linkages and examined the risks, opportunities and risks mitigation measures in the downstream sector of Zambias copper industry. The rest of the paper is structured as follows; section two introduces the background and established the theoretical framework. Section three examined the scope of downstream activities, the risks, opportunities and possible measures for risks mitigation and section four concludes with recommendation. 2.0 BACKGROUND 2.1 A Brief Overview of Global Copper Production and Consumption The global cumulative annual growth in global mine output of copper has gone through significant changes over the period 1750 to 2007. It stood at 0.8% in 1750-1800, rose to 2.6% in 1800-1850 and from 1850 and until 1900, the annual growth of copper production accelerated to 4.5%. Output expansion subsequently reduced to an average of 3.3% between 1900 and 1950, and remained at this level until 2007 (Radetzki, 2009p.182). In 2011, global copper production reached an output level of 16100 metric tonnes from 15900 metric tonnes in 2010 with a total reserves value of 690000 metric tonnes (USDSp. 49) (2012). On the other hand, growth rates in global copper consumption fell from 4.48% in the period 150-1973 to 0.65 covering 1973-1983 largely explained by the oil price shocks of the 1970s and 80s and picked up again, reaching 2.51% for period 1983-2003 (Nishiyama, 2005p..132). The period following 1990 saw a significant increase of Asia, especially Chinas share of global copper consumption , currently about 40% (ICSG) which gradual spurred up copper prices in the mid-2000s. The interplay of Chinas demand growth and appropriate timing of additions to production capacity speaks a lot about the future global trends in both production and consumption. 2.2 Overview of Copper Mining in Zambia Copper mining in Zambia dates back to the 1900s under the control of two mining companies, Rhodesia Selection Trust and Anglo-American Corporation (AAC)( Fessehaie, 2011p.16) .The industry came to be nationalized in the late 1960 and was operated under state ownership and control, a typical characteristic of mining operations in mineral exporting countries in the decades following the Second World War. The government, following years of significant losses, privatized its copper mines, which were later consolidated into the Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM), majority-owned by Government (60.3%), with a minority share owned by AAC (27.3%)( Fessehaie, 2011p.16). For instance, Kansanshi mine, the largest copper project in Africa is 80% owned by First Quantum Minerals Ltd and 20% by the state run ZCCM Investments Holdings which replaced ZCCM (ARB, 2012). The mining sector is regulated primarily by Act No. 7 of 2008 (the Mines and Mineral Development Act of 2008). The Zambian copper industry is not insulated from the acquisitions and mergers characteristic of the global mining industry. In 2011, Barrick Gold Corp. of Canada acquired Equinox Minerals Ltd. of Canada (USp43.1). Newshelf 1124 (Proprietary) Ltd. of South Africa, an indirect subsidiary of the Jinchuan Group Ltd. of China acquired Metorex Ltd. of South Africa and its underground Chibuluma copper mine (Metorex Ltd., 2011, p. 8). Konnoco Zambia Ltd., a joint venture of African Rainbow Minerals Ltd. of South Africa and Vale, continues with the development of the Konkola North underground copper mine (African Rainbow Minerals Ltd., 2012, p. 70). Mining companies equally undertake joint ventures in explorative activities in Zambia. Argonaut Resources NL of Australias subsidiary Lumwana West Resources Ltd. in a joint venture with Mwombezhi Resources Ltd. of Zambia set to explore in Northwestern Province (Argonaut Resources NL, 2012, p. 2). Zambias economy is heavily reliant on mining, particularly its copper and cobalt, and the mining sector makes significant contribution to Zambia exports and economic growth. Copper output rose dramatically following the copper price rise in the mid-2000s with annual copper production increased from 335,000 metric tonnes in 2002 to over 569,000 metric tonnes in 2008 (Wilson, 2012) . From 2007, copper exports contributed 73.7-80.5 per cent of total foreign exchange earnings, 10 per cent of formal employment, and in 2010 Zambia was the largest copper producer in Africa and the 7th largest in the world ( Fessehaie, 2012). Copper exports jumped from $474 million in 2000 to almost $4 billion in 2008. In 2010, the mining and quarrying sector accounted for 9.9% of Zambias real gross domestic product (at constant 1994 prices) compared with a revised 9.3% in 2009. Copper exports earnings increased by 15.5% to US $6,660.2 million from US $5,767.9 million in 2010 (Bank of Zambia, 2012, p. 23,) a nd in 2011, copper exports were valued at $6.9 billion (Mobbs, 2012 p.43.1). 2.3 Theoretical Framework The concept of linkage development in the academic discourse has its root from early works of Leontief (1936) who applied an input-output analysis to static quantity modeling (Lenzen, 2003 p.1), modified by Rasmussen (1956) for inter-industrial analysis as setting the basis for structural interdependence. In determining the key sectors of an economy, Hirschman (1958) argued that above-average linkages are pre-requisites for economic development and structural changes within an economy or a region (p1-2). Contrary to this argument, Bharadwaj (1966), Panchamukhi (1975) and McGilvray (1977) highlighted that international comparative advantages, technical and skill endowment, final demand structure are among the driving forces of economic growth and concluded that linkage interconnectedness is a weak rod to rationalising a development policy(1-2) According to Hirschman as cited in Morris et al (2012), there are three main types of linkages in the commodity sector thus, fiscal, consumption and production linkages. In his view, fiscal linkage encompasses royalties and taxes which together form mineral rents; consumption linkage entails the consumption demands of workers of the commodity sector, whereas the production linkage encapsulates both backward and forward linkages. Authors such as Sonis and Hewings (1989, 1999) and Sonis et al. (2000) in their works on the dynamics of backward and forward linkages, and economic landscapes of multiplier product matrices pushed further the arguments of Hirschman and Rasmussen (Lenzen, 2003 p. 2). The linkage thesis has been applied in a number of studies in attempts to examine the impact of mining on economies. Lenzen (2003) utilised the input-output application in his analysis of the key environmentally important factors of production, linkages and key sectors in the Australian economy and concluded without a factual basis that strong forward linkages are characteristic of primary industries like grazing and mining whereas strong backward industries characterized secondary industries (p.29). Similarly, Cristobal and Biezma (2006 p1,5) analysed the forward and backward linkages of mining and quarrying in ten EU countries to determine whether the industry constitute a key sector and came to a conclusion that the mining and quarrying industry has a strong backward link to regional economys production more than other sectors and otherwise holds for forward linkages. Though not a metal mineral, the Southern Louisiana offshores oil fields is the most apparent successful linkage ca pture identified throughout the 20th century. The ability to sustain pre-existing competition and the availability of the commodity in large quantities were largely responsible for the successful linkage capture (Freudenburg and Gramling (1998p 575-576). Moreover, Aroca (2001p 131) employed the input-output Leontief matrix to determine the impact of the mining sector on the Chilean II region and analysed the driving forces to the extent of the impact. With regards to the volume of production, his analysis indicates that the mining sector is very important but loses its importance in developing forward and backward linkages in the economy. Lydall (2009 p.2, 119) investigated backward linkage capture of South Africa platinum group metals and found different categories of supplier firms, ranging from base, medium to large able to satisfy the needs of the various PGM mines, concentrator plants, smelters and refineries. She however cautioned the existence of market-related and firm-speci fic factors militating against the growth and expansion of such linkages. Morris et al (2012 p 1-2,14) examined the underlying factors to linkage capture in the commodity sectors in low income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa with much attention on backward linkage capture and recommended for strategies to be mapped to propel industrial sector upgrading especially in commodity exporting countries. Also, Fessehaie (2012p 2,7) examined the determinants of upstream linkages to copper production in Zambia. She noted that backward linkage was growing and copper mining presents opportunities and recommended that in order to broaden backward linkage to utilize such opportunities there is the need to eliminate barriers to upgrading through an industrial policy which takes care of supplier competitiveness constraints. From the preceding literature reviewed, much attention on linkage capture studies has been directed at the backward linkage capture. The few works on linkage development in Zambia copper (Fessehaie, 2011 and 2012; Morris, 2012), the emphasis has been on the backward linkage. Therefore, the existence of paucity of studies that investigate forward linkages in the mineral sector particularly the copper industry in Zambia exposes a gap which the study aims to contribute to. 3.0 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 The Scope of Downstream Activities Forward linkages encompass the establishment of downstream activities, at least processing and refining of copper ore and concentrates into primary metal, the fabrication of primary metal into semi-fabricated products and possibly, induced industrialisation. For the purpose of this study, mining ends with primary metal production and downstream activities begins with semi-products fabrication and beyond. Zambian copper industry has long history of existence but became more active and copper mine production of ore, anode and cathode increased following the privatization of the mining industry through the 1990s to early 2000s. The majority of copper ore mined in Zambia is smelted locally before being exported to foreign markets (Fraser and Lungu, 2007 Wilson). Fig 3.1 confirms that though greater share of mine output is refined locally, very less of it is used in the country. The graph covered a short period due to lack of access to up-to-date quality data. Zambias copper is mainly exported as cathode or blister, the standard forms of the internationally-traded commodity. Zambia uses less than 5 percent of its copper output to make fabricated products (World Bank, 2011 p ii). However, finished goods containing copper are mainly imported into the country. Zambia has developed a small copper fabrication industry that produces a narrow range of products for domestic use and for export to regional markets, largely informed by proximity to customers guided by profitability. However, these markets are small, and yet the industry competes with larger and more developed industries especially that of South African copper fabrication industry. Zambias fabrication industry is growing rapidly, but from a small base, led by Metal Fabricators of Zambia Ltd (ZAMEFA), a subsidiary of the US-based General Cable Corporation followed by others such as the Cast Product Foundry Non Ferrous Metals, Kavino and Central African Recycling in the scrap metal busi ness (World Bank, 2011p ii). ZAMEFA which has a domestic, regional and international market orientation produces wire rod, wire, cable, and a few other products. Its product portfolio is growing. Kavino, wire and cable manufacturer has a domestic market orientation whereas Central African Recycling is well positioned to utilized opportunities as they arise. Total number of employees falls below 1000. In 2008, Zambian mine, smelter and refined copper output in tonnes stood at 546 600, 232,000 and 416,900 respectively. The fabricated metals production sector contribution to GDP grew at an annual average of 0.2 percent for the period 2002 to 2008.(World Bank, pp 18). 3.2 Risks Associated with Downstream Activities The resource-based industrialiation that characterized the development process of resource-rich developed economies is often quoted to back resource-rich developing countries quest for resource-driven industrialisation which in their view masterminded the in dustrialiation process of some mature economies. However, the growth strategy of the Nordic countries, United States and Canada for instance did not based entirely on mineral extraction but span from a low-technology based on low-cost labour to highly sophisticated knowledge-intensive activities (Walker and Jourdan, 2003. P.30.). Nevertheless, risks, largely economic, abound alongside the potentials of further downstream activities. Downstream activities beyond primary processing are capital intensive and require less skilled labour. Guided by profit motive, firms seriously consider capital cost in securing capital to finance assets. Backed by the electronic revolution, market efficiency sets the ground for capital and skills to be deployed to most productive locations (Walker and Jourdan, 2003p 30) and countries without traditional comparative advantages like Zambia are less strategic in competing for foreign direct investment. Again, the capital intensive nature of further processing of copper questions the employment multiplier and rather breed associated risks of either expanding or contracting employment opportunities. Moreover, the fabrication industry uses 37 percent of copper that is derived from scrap metal which is limited in the country (World Bank, 2011p.iii). Therefore, importing other raw materials including scrap for fabrication may not make any comparative advantage sense in the short to medium t erm and highlights the risk associated with an uncompetitive and injudicious allocation of the nations scarce economic resources. The ability to compete and access adequate market, both regional and global to justify downstream activities on any significant scale comes with a risk. Committing resources into fabrication without any competitive market edge exposes the copper mining sector to possible collapse and the entire economy to possible shocks. This is because upon the small size of the sub-regional market (less than 1 percent) of the global total for fabricated copper products (World Bank, 2011p ii) better established firms in South Africa have captured a greater portion of the regional market. Internal demand for fabricated products is woefully inadequate and therefore, the promised job expansion, high foreign earnings and associated growth potential are easily erodible, if even attained. Walker and Jourdan, 2003p 33 noted that domestic demand was instrumental in Swedens initial resource-oriented industrialisation. Closely linked is tariff escalation that discourages exports of higher value-added products from Low Income Countries (LICs) (IMF, 2011p.16). Tariff escalation and high physical transport cost jointly further accentuate the risks to Zambian copper downstream activities. Consuming countries of copper metal and semi-fabricated products especially the newly industrializing countries and roaring developing countries of China and India, in their industrialization drive, have in one way or the other resort to restrictions in the form of differential tariffs (varies directly with the value already added) on raw materials imports for their industries. Dimaranan et al, (2006 p. 13) note that Indian policy measures in this regard include more effective duty exemptions for intermediates used in the production of manufactured exports. The high transport cost and tariffs imposed on value-added products together can cancel completely if not negate the often expectant high profits and associated em ployment multipliers. The prices for both the primary and fabricated products of the mining industry are characterized by troughs and peaks. However, the existence of terminal markets such as London Metal Exchange (LME), the Commodity Exchange Division of the New York Mercantile Exchange (COMEX/NYMEX) and the Shanghai Metal Exchange (SHME)(ICSGP.33factbook) provides mitigation to the risk on primary metal resulting from price volatilities. On the other hand, high-value added downstream products are more prone to price shocks as there exist no such terminal markets in that sub-sector of the industry. Therefore, the often envisaged employment multipliers and high foreign earnings that motivate pressure for further downstream processing places the entire economy at risk in the event of weak prices without any competitive edge. Mainstream fabricated metal products are largely low margin items. However, high level of capacity utilization and throughput is required to generate sufficient margins which are currently in non-existence in Zambian copper industry. This is largely informed by the uncompetitive and comparative disadvantages to the downstream sector of Zambian copper industry. The situation exposes the downstream copper fabrication industry to the risk of at best earning low margins. In 2008 for example, First Quantum Ltd, a leading European copper rod producer made profits of 12.2% and 49.6% from large Cap Cast Copper Rotors (CCR) rod mill and Oxygen-free High Conductivity (OFHC) rod fabrications respectively (World Bank, 2011p.13) but earned a profit of 85.4% from primary cathode production. Such low margins in fabrication gives the signals that even internationally competitive manufacturers of range of specialist copper products rather earn high margins in primary metal production. 3.3 Opportunities in Downstream Value-addition The existence of copper deposits in substantial quantities is a basic requirement for mining in the first place and possibly, further downstream processing (Freudenburg and Gramling, 1998). The existing domestic and regional market does not incentivise further copper fabricating on any significant scale, but some localised small-scale opportunities may emerge. In this regard, there may be a scope for some gradual scaling-up of existing output and/or product diversification by existing operations especially ZAMEFA and for some small-scale artisanal processing, probably based on scrap metal. Sectorial opportunities could be enhanced if the basic and mainly infrastructural bottlenecks are remedied. One of such opportunities is the World Bank support to revamp Zescos existing distribution networks in selected areas to reduce losses and improve supply quality (World Bank, 2011p.33,34). Depending on the roll-out of electrification extensions, there may be some demand for low and medium vol tage. Moreover, the global copper industry has identified a potential market which could exploit the known biocidal properties of copper in combating Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA,) spread by its use in touch surfaces and all fixtures and fittings in hospitals and clinics. The international competitive nature of the downstream activities of fabrication limit these opportunities as well established firms are ever ready and prepared to cease any market opportunities as they arise and compete out less competitive ones. Chinas dominance in the recent global copper consumption forecloses in comparative and competitive terms, any opportunities of developing an internationally competitive further copper processing in Zambia at least, for the short to medium term. For instance, Chinese refined copper consumption expanded by an annual 15.3% in the 1998-2007 period and by 2007, Chinas share of global copper usage rose from 10.5% to 26.9% (Radetzki , 2009. P. 177) in a decade. Though very important, the geological potential does not itself guarantee comparative and competitive advantage in any appreciable further downstream processing. For instance, Chile, the worlds largest copper producer, accounting 34 percent of world mined copper output and 17 percent of wor ld refined copper output, yet its use of refined copper is less than 1 percent of the world total (World Bank, 2011.8) 3.4 Mitigating Downstream Activities-Associated Risks and the Way Forward Value-addition is critical to ensuring greater benefits and competitiveness for countries incorporated in the global economy (Mtegha and Minnitt, 2006 p. 236) hence further downstream processing should be encouraged and driven by state incentives taking cognizance of the external environment. A strong manufacturing base has to be developed if any significant expansion of copper value-addition activities is to grow. In order to grow and sustain a downstream fabrication sector and even beyond, new sources of accessing competitive foreign direct investment and the continual adaptation and innovation of technology which is critical to maintaining technological competitive edge globally are ideal prerequisites. Moreover, demand is indispensable in industrial development and therefore any effort in that regard must first address the market end of the value chain ranging from local, regional to global levels. The ability to create a clear niche advantage is required if the copper downstream activities are to undergo substantial growth. Ideally, attaining global competitiveness is the single most important driver in mitigating risks ranging from further downstream processing or fabrication. While this may possibly be a long term growth and development goal in the downstream sector, the provision of adequate energy, communication and other infrastructure coupled with the effective and judicious use of economic returns from copper mining for diversification in new comparative advantage industries would in the papers view set the foundation for any competitive industrialisation in the long run. From table 1 below, South Africa is better positioned to cease any downstream copper fabrication and market opportunities at regional level and at the global level, China. 4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The study explored the scope of downstream linkages in the Zambian copper industry and examined the risks of engaging in downstream fabrication as well as the opportunities and suggested ways for mitigating the risks. The study reveals a small and modest fabrication activity producing a narrow range of products for domestic use and for export to regional markets, largely informed by proximity to customers guided by profitability. The decision in going downstream beyond primary metal processing encapsulates political and economic dimensions hence, requires striking a balance between both dimensions. Shaping a competitive mining industry alongside conscious efforts to diversify into other industries which gradually grow to shake off the initial copper-based dependence is a policy option and at the same time revitalizing the national science, technology and innovation policy to provide the foundation for long term skills and knowledge development. Chile, having built a competitive minin g industry, diversified its economy into other competitive sectors which propelled its growth. In the short to medium term, developing a competitive copper mining industry is plausible and more realistic in comparative advantage terms while mapping out strategies to attain competitiveness from national, regional to global scales which will mitigate further copper processing or fabrication risks.